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Accepting gifts during a negotiation can createconflict of interestconcerns and may violate ethical standards. Best practice requires rejecting such offers to maintain transparency and objectivity in decision-making.

Direct costs are attributable to a specific project — in construction, this includes materials and on-site labour. Legal fees, insurance, and office space are indirect costs, as they support the business overall but are not tied to one project. For buyers, distinguishing direct from indirect costs ensures pricing transparency and helps challenge excessive overhead allocations. This knowledge strengthens cost breakdown negotiations in project contracts.

Below are some examples of cost input that can be analysed in PPCA process:

- Material costs

- Process and labour costs

- Employment costs

- Overhead costs

- Distribution costs

- Depreciation on equipment

- Profit

If you want to learn more on PPCA, you can study from OGC document here:

LO 2, AC 2.1

The analysis of cost into fixed and variable enables organisations to determine their break-even point (BE) - the point where total revenue from sales and total cost exactly balance. All costs need to be covered by sale revenue in order for a company to make a profit. If you know your fixed costs and your variable costs then you can work out the minimum quantity of goods or services you need to sell to break even. Break even point is measured in volume and can be worked out graphically or via formulae:

Price - Variable costs = Contribution

Break even point (volume) = Fixed expenses/Contribution margin per unit

In this scenario, the break even point (Q) is: 270,000/(180-126) = 5,000

To make a profit, the supplier needs to sell more than 5,000 units per month.

The BE point is thus an important determinant of flexibility of pricing for suppliers. Before BE is achieved there will be much greater reluctance to offer price concessions to customers than after BE is achieved.

LO 2, AC 2.1